Broken Promises

Broken Promises, Reparations there is a renewed willingness on the part of both governments and corporations to provide compensation for injustices in other contexts. Often it has taken the form of cash payments or other benefits to victims of Nazi and Japanese atrocities during World War II. Some have sought to return land to native peoples, while others have simply offered apologies. Apologies have been offered for a wide range of past injustices done to Jews, Korean women, Native Americans, and South African blacks. The U. S. government apologized for its role in overthrowing the native government in Hawaii and the elected government in Guatemala. † (Arthur, 2007) In appearing to act in the interest of former slaves government raised reparations as a subject and passed laws directing compensatory payment after the Civil War. Former slaves needed footing to function on an economic and social level in this nation. Laws stipulating compensation be disbursed in the form of lives tock, monies, lands etc. were passed. In 1865, the original reparations package, the so-called â€Å"40 Acres and a Mule,† was issued.Each black family was supposed to receive 40 acres and later was offered the loan of Army mules. The same year, Congress established the Freedmen's Bureau, which was created to oversee the transition of slaves to freedom. The goal of the Freedmen's Bureau was to distribute 850,000 abandoned and confiscated acres of land to former slaves. But the distribution never happened. Former Confederates were allowed to reclaim the property. † http://www. alternet. org/story/11000 Broken Promises, Reparations 3 At its root reparations was an idea government pretended to embrace.This appears to be evident in taking the axiom â€Å"Actions speak louder than words† into account. The legal mandates for reparations that were voluntarily passed by government were not empowered to transform the law from writing to realities the former slaves would e xperience. 136 years having passed without a blade of grass, a single dollar, mule or apology does not reckon favorably in African American’s minds, especially when government is noted to have apologized to other ethnic groups and disbursed funds and resources as a part of those apologies.â€Å"Under the Civil Liberties Act of 1988, signed into law by President Ronald Reagan, the U. S. government apologized for Japanese American internment during World War II and provided reparations of $20,000 to each survivor, to compensate for loss of property and liberty during that period. For many years, Native American tribes have received compensation for lands ceded to the United States by them in various treaties. Other countries have also opted to pay reparations for past grievances, (see Holocaust reparations)†,(http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Reparations_for_slavery).Anti-reparation activists decry the idea that African Americans living today should receive compensation for experiences they did not endure. Descendants of slave owners who had nothing to do with slavery should be exempt from any responsibility for debts incurred by their ancestors is another anti-reparation argument. While there may be merit to the idea that public policy should not function like a curse a legal basis for the call for Broken Promises, Reparations 4 reparations were passed.The failure to perform to meet the purpose of the law for 136 years does not nullify the nation’s duty to meet the duties it has already legislated. is was objectively The problem is there were laws passed that would have settled the call for reparations a century later if they’d been enforced. The idea of a mass of property and money going to African Americans is exacerbated by the fact that African Americans weren’t the only ethnic group that’s been discriminated against in America.Blacks were the only group enslaved under the authorities of legislation. When bringing the holocaust associated with slave trading to mind African Americans justification for compensation are all the more strengthened by the weight of conscience. The number of slaves lost in transporting, some to mass killings draws spiritual and legal issues into the debate. The killings of slaves to appease economic concerns of slave traders is an embarrassment to arguments seeking to deny reparations. â€Å"Heading for Jamaica in 1781, the ship Zong was nearing the end of its voyage.It had been twelve weeks since it had sailed from the west African coast with its cargo of 417 slaves. Water was running out. Then, compounding the problem, there was an outbreak of disease. The ship's captain, reasoning that the slaves were going to die anyway, made a decision. In order to reduce the owner's losses he would throw overboard the slaves thought to be too sick to recover. The voyage was insured, but the insurance would not pay for sick slaves or even those killed by illness. However, it would cover slaves lost Broken Promises, Reparations 5 through drowning.The captain gave the order; 54 Africans were chained together, then thrown overboard. Another 78 were drowned over the next two days. By the time the ship had reached the Caribbean,132 persons had been murdered. (http://www. alternet. org/story/11000/) The abolition of slavery, laws authorizing reparations that were not enforced, mass murders of large numbers of slaves and the government’s perpetuating injustice against Blacks through legalized segregation and discrimination expand the scope of what was originally â€Å"purposed† to address those who were directly affected by slavery.The government’s failing to enforce reparation laws it instituted over 100 years ago gives African Americans pause to reason the nation must be forced to meet its obligation. The lack of a single conciliatory act, including a lack of an apology has direct bearing on African American’s being reconciled to Ameri ca. The arguments for and against reparations may impress some as having equal weight along moral, ethical and legal lines. As time has passed benign neglect of what reparation laws has given place to arguments anti-reparation activists use in their efforts to frustrate the campaign.The claim that the current generation of African Americans should not be compensated for what they did not suffer was made possible by the government’s purposefully ignoring its own legislation for over a century. This is an enhancement of moral grounds to campaign for reparations today. Having made accommodations for Japanese internees, funding billions to ameliorate injustice for others Broken Promises, Reparations 6 in foreign lands, etc. magnifies the call for government to fulfill obligations imposed by laws stipulating reparations.Randall Robinson has joined the fray with his book, â€Å"The Debt: What America Owes to Blacks† (Dutton, 200) Robinson writes: â€Å"No race, no ethnic or religious group, has suffered so much over so long a span as blacks have, and do still, at the hands of those who benefitted, with the connivance of the United States government, from slavery and the century of legalized American racial hostility that followed it. It is a miracle that the victims — weary dark souls long shorn of a venerable and ancient identity — have survived at all, stymied as they are by this blocked road to economic equality. † http://www. alternet. org/story/11000/†.The blocked road for African American reparation is the ever growing cacophony of reasons why there is no plausible means to reason from whence the compensation should be drawn. There is a web of issues too complex to hope to resolve in this argument. â€Å"One additional problem is that the governments in power in the 1600s and 1700s in Europe are not still in power now. †¦.. It would be difficult, if not impossible, to hold the current French government liable for the enslavement of Africans that previous governments encouraged and benefited from between the 1600s up to the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. † http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Reparations_for_slavery†.The point counterpoint of the argument is gnarly and complex complicating the call for reparations. â€Å"One additional problem is that the governments in power in the 1600s and 1700s in Europe are not still in power now. †¦.. It would be difficult, if not impossible, to hold the current French government liable for the enslavement of Africans that previous governments encouraged and benefited from between the 1600s up to the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. † http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Reparations_for_slavery†.The point counterpoint of the argument is gnarly and complex complicating the call for reparations. Broken Promises, Reparations 1 Broken Promises, Reparations For African Americans Customer’s name Course name Professor’s Name Date Broken Promises, Reparations 7REFERENCEShttp://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Reparations_for_slaveryhttp://www. alternet. org/story/11000/ Arthur John (2007) Race, Equality, and the Burdens of History, State University of New York, Binghamton

American Barrick Resources Corporation Case Essay

a. Explain the value chain for gold mining firms (how can a mine create a competitive advantage relative to its rivals). What are the factors that may explain exceptional performance of ABX relative to the other gold mines? To create a competitive advantage, a mine has to properly manage its exposure to gold price fluctuations. This is not an easy thing to do since there are so many factors to consider: when, how much, and how to hedge the gold production. Firms in this industry differentiate themselves based on the risk management strategies they implement. Furthermore, mines should also be able to minimize the cost of gold production along with making large sunk costs. Operating in this sector obliges the companies to make huge investments to create the proper infrastructure to dig and process the ore; therefore, they should be financially stable on order to afford investing large amount of money. ABX implemented a gold hedging program that quickly became an integral part of its corporate strategy. This strategy helped it to hedge efficiently against gold price fluctuation. Besides, it allowed it to occasionally sell its gold at prices above those of the market. The exceptional performance of ABX was also due to its annual acquisitions. Luck was an important aspect as well, since gold was discovered in most of its new properties. Moreover, American Barrick generated a lot of cash, which it reinvested to finance its growth. It was also able to cut its expenses in order to enhance its growing profitability. The management of American Barrick wanted to diversify its activities by listing the company in Toronto, Montreal, and the United States among others. The top managers were very serious about keeping a financial stability and a liquid balance sheet by issuing few debts and hedging against risk. All in all, American Barrick attracted a lot of investors because of its risk management strategies, expected future growth, strong and liquid balance sheet, and finally its efficient management team. b. Quantify the nature of gold exposure, that is, in the absence of a hedging program using financial instruments, how sensitive would Barrick stock be to gold prices changes? For every 1% change in gold prices, how might its stock price be affected? How could the firm manage its gold price exposure without the use of financial contracts? If American Barrick wanted to protect itself from gold price exposure without the use of financial contracts, it could use natural hedges. One way to hedge against undesired risk is to match cash flows such as revenues and expenses. In other words, a commodity producer such as American Barrick, which has revenues payables in U.S. dollars and incurs cash outflows in a different currency, will try to match its outflows to its expected inflows in the foreign currency. Another way of hedging against risk is the purchase of insurance to protect against financial loss due to external influences. It is also common to hedge gold investments against fluctuations of the U.S. dollar. It is extremely important for commodity traders to know which currency is correlated with what commodity in order to be able to predict certain market movements; for instance, there is often a negative correlation between gold and S&P 500. c. What is the stated intent of ABX’s hedging program? What are the arguments for managing gold price exposure? ABX wanted to lock in the price at which it could sell its output in order to avoid seeing the expected value of its projects fluctuate widely. It wanted to differentiate itself from its competitor by choosing the right hedging policy. ABX aimed at being financially stable by protecting itself against the dips in the gold price. It vehemently argued that managing gold price exposure would allow it appropriately forecast its cash flows, rise its production, and offers its investors a clear vision of their future earnings. d. How would you characterize the evolution of Barrick’s price risk management activities? Are they consistent with the stated policy goals? American Barrick used to use gold financings. Through this way of financing, investors could benefit from both the increase incurred in the volumes of gold to the trust and the gold price. In 1984 and 1985, ABX used forward sales right after a sharp drop in gold prices. This strategy allowed the company to eliminate its exposure to price drops; however, it also limited its opportunities to benefit when the prices rose. This led it to try option-based insurance strategies that could manage the risk but still allow retaining some of the benefits of rising prices. However, as it needed contracts with a longer maturity, ABX shifted to spot deferred contracts. The evolution of Barrick’s risk management activities is characterized by its wish to be fully protected against price declines and still be able to capture benefit from increasin g gold prices. The risk management strategies implemented by American Barrick were consistent with their goals since its positions grew considerably.   e. How should a gold mine which wants to moderate its gold price risk compare hedging strategies (using futures, forwards, gold loans, or spot deferred contracts) with insurance strategies (using options)? On what basis should these decisions be made? Once a firm has decided on either a hedging or an insurance strategy, how should it choose from among specific alternatives? A mine that wants to moderate its gold price risk should first analyse the differences between the hedging and the insurance strategies. Indeed, hedging allows eliminating risk by giving up the potential for gain. While an insurance strategy requires a premium to eliminate risk but allows retaining the potential for gain. The decision should be made based on the cost of the strategy, the maturity of the strategy, and the degree to which the strategy allows to benefit from potential gains. Once a firm has decided on what strategy to follow it should choose among the existing alternatives of each strategy. For the hedging strategy, the company should take into consideration the particularity of each financial instrument. Indeed, forward sales for instance, are usually for relatively short delivery periods of under a few years. However, a continuous drop in gold prices might negatively affect the opportunity for the firm to sell at higher market prices. On the other hand, spot deferred contracts allow having multiple delivery dates. They enable the firm to profit from increases in the price and yet set a minimum price on its sales. For the insurance strategy, the main problem encountered by the firm is that of the cost. Indeed, the firm should use the premiums received from the sale of calls to purchase puts. That way the cash inflows and outflows cancel out. The firm can also reduce the cost of insurance by adjusting the exercise prices and rations of puts and calls to determine the degree at which it chose to participate in gold price rises. f. What is a â€Å"spot deferred contract†? Explain the mechanics of the contract. Is it an option? A forward contract? Why has ABX chosen to rely on spot deferred contracts relative to other gold derivatives? As defined in the case, a spot deferred contract is a type of forward sale of gold. At the opposite of a forward where the delivery is set on specified day (maturity), SDC’s are characterized by multiple delivery dates. It is up to the seller to choose on which rollover date they would make the delivery. The seller has the choice to defer the delivery up until the end of the contract. In other words, the seller had flexibility as to when they would like to deliver the quantity of gold. ABX preferred SDC’s to other gold derivatives for the simple reason that they allowed it to profit from increases in the price of gold and yet set a minimum price on its sales of gold. Therefore, as years have gone by, ABX found itself using more and more SDC’s at the expense of other hedging vehicles.

Dreams Mice and Men Essay

George and Lennie’s dream is the most commonly mentioned in the novel, they want to live the American dream and have their own land and home. Although Crooks tells them he â€Å"never seen a guy really do it† their determination is beyond that of normal men. They crave the freedom from ordered working life and less responsibility. George desires the relief from the burden of supervising Lennie, on the ranch he constantly has to watch him to ensure he is no danger to himself or others. He talks of how he could â€Å"live so easy† without Lennie and it seems to be a private dream of his to marry and raise a family without the childish weight of Lennie upon him. He has cared for Lennie for a large part of his life and wants happiness for both of them without the strain of rules and the risk of characters such as Curley. Lennie’s only dream at first glance seems to be having his rabbits, however at a closer look the rabbits are his way of relating to their entire dream, he connects all other aspects of free life with them such as growing crops to feed them. He loves hearing the story of â€Å"how its gonna be†, his own dreams are based on what George tells him is good and bad. Candy is desperate to join in with Lennie and George and their dreams have become his. Since his dog died he has nothing left on the ranch to encourage dreams and he seems to have given up, the chance to be part of a reasonably realistic project motivates him again and he is willing to give everything to be part of it, â€Å"I’d make a will an’ leave everything to you guys case I kick off. † All of Candy’s dreams seem to have be worn away by life on the ranch, the loss of his hand also seems to symbolise a large loss mentally for without his hand he cannot realistically dream of working his own land and living alone. For Candy life on the ranch seems to be a reminder of lost dreams rather than hopeful ones and this could explain his eagerness to be part of Lennie and George’s. He is also aware that he is old and becoming closer to the end of his job and possibly his life. â€Å"They’ll can me purty soon. Jus’ as soon as I can’t swamp out no bunk houses they’ll put me on the county. † He dreams of ending his life in happiness and not in poverty and discomfort surrounded by bad memories. Curley’s wife is in many ways like Lennie and George, she tell her dream like its real and could happen at any time to escape the loneliness of the ranch. She tells as many people as she can about her dream as though she wants to make it more real for herself. Her conversation with Lennie reveals her desperation to make this dream come true, she hangs onto the man who could put her in â€Å"pitchers†, so sure he did write to her and someone else ruined her dream. It is these fantasies she uses to escape her life which is heavily restricted by her husband who wants to control her to comply with his own dreams, she wishes to be free to fulfil the life she desires. Her way of telling the story of her dream is almost sad as she clings to any glimpse of it so desperately it is clear how unhappy she is. All the dreams expressed by these characters are what drive them in the novel and can determine how they express their feelings and how they act. Niki Holdsworth Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE John Steinbeck section.

Basseri Tribe of Iran Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Basseri Tribe of Iran - Term Paper Example This is the purpose of this thesis. This analysis also enhance familiarity on how the environment greatly influenced the cultural behavior of a group of people, and how the people in turn adjust their way of life according to what the environment dictates for them. But even some environmental factors will tend to influence people’s way of life, more often, the inherent virtues and molded values are predominantly influencing the decisions of some individuals or even a group of people as a whole. Therefore, through anthropological study of the impact of mode of subsistence of Basseri tribe in their cultural way of life, we will acquire full discernment on how and why mode of subsistence largely effect people’s behavior and way of living. Cultural Anthropology of Basseri Tribe of Iran Curiosity on ethnographic significance of Basseri tribe, a tribal group of pastoral nomads of Iran’s past cultural civilization, opens a way to discernment of the interesting relationship of a society’s mode of subsistence to its unique cultural features which contributes largely on anthropological study. The Basseri are known to be as traditional pastoralists. Pastoralists is defined as people whose livelihood largely rests on raising domestic animals such as sheep, goats, cattle, horses, and donkeys for milk, meat, wool production and even for transport use (Ikeya & Fratkin, 2005). As nomads, they are a wandering people who led a pastoral life while dwelling in tents as they migrated customarily in a strip of land which measures approximately 300 miles long and 20-50 miles wide in the parched prairies and mountains south, east and north of Shiraz in Fars province of South Persia. Thereby, the Basseri tribe is one among the delineated groups in Fars province of South Persia, now known as Iran, and considered as a unit for administrative purposes by the Iranian authorities. This tribe speaks the Persian dialect that is very close to the urban Persian of Shiraz town. They are more defined in political terms rather than in ethnicity nor in geographical criteria. However, in our recent y ears, Basseri lost most of its political and social meaning as its population started to decline depending on the changes on fate of its political leaders and probably on the circumstances of nomadism in South Persia (Barth, 1961). But then, as pastoral nomads, their primary mode of subsistence has important connections in their kinship, economic, social and political organization, and in their religious beliefs. Awareness in such relations contributes understanding on some cultural backgrounds and enhances understanding on anthropological knowledge of the past. Kinship The tribal kinship pattern of Basseri is ‘patrilineal’ wherein descent is traced through the male line. The son of a Basseri, even though his mother is from another ethnic tribe or village, is considered to be a Basseri. While a Basseri woman cannot transmits her rights in the tribe to her offspring if she marries outside the tribe. But although patrilineal in pattern, the matrilateral and affinal relati ons were regarded as contributors of solidarity and kinship, a strong bond between mother and child that largely influenced the effectiveness in establishing their political bonds between tents. In marriage, the transaction is not limited between the two contracting spouses, but it also includes the whole kin groups that constitute the whole households. The head of the household, which is also the head of the tent, has the authority over the marriage contracts of his household members. A nontribal ritual specialist or holy man issues the marriage cont

Evaluate for<< V for Vendetta>> Essay

Evaluate for> - Essay Example In the essay we read of an individual who stepped up toward there game eventually risking his own life  so the citizens that he represents would have the said freedom that was deserved. In the essay, we evaluated the V for Vendetta text by looking into aesthetic and practical criteria such as plot, characters, visual, costumes, music, directing, dialogue, entertainment values, acting abilities, or specific skills demonstrated by the characters. When a subject matter is evaluated, the audience should be provided with an overall claim, supporting evidence, and concluding based recommendations. Therefore in summary form, this essay evaluate the V for Vendetta movie based on character traits, lessons depicted and quotes used. In 1603, aman known as V decided to destroy their parliament through use of Gunpowder Plot. In this movie, Director James McTeigue portrays how the Britain regime was corrupt and full of dictatorship. However, a freedom fighter called V decided to bring this totalitarian Government into the heels by using gunpowder. In the process, Chancellor Adam Sutler known as John Hurt decided to take power and ended up instilling fear on the London’s citizen so that they can know who is in power and therefore not judge him on corruption deeds. However, the main character in the movie known as v is heard saying that â€Å"Remember, remember the Fifth of November,† meaning that at that day, the London based citizens should take to streets and protest against their regime without fear or contradiction (Criteria for Great Movie 2014). Before sending his message on live based television, the chancellor faced a lot of challenges among them killings occurred with doctors who were in the detention based center where William Rookwood changed his name to V.V decided to take revenge against the doctors and the government because of the killings and torture of great Britain people. On his mission, V meets a

Corrections- Strategic Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Corrections- Strategic Plan - Essay Example The Tasmanian Correction prison institution’s mission is to make a valid contribution towards a safer and better Tasmania. This it aims achieving through the ensuring of a secure and safe containment of inmates and the provision of opportunities to the inmates for rehabilitation community engagement as well as personal development (Taylor, 2009). The Tasmanian Correction Prison’s values are direct. They require that the institution continue committing itself to the best principled leadership as well as embracing sets of core values that are directed at guiding the stakeholders’ behavior. This the institution aims to achieve through: Collaboration: to enhance a communal sense of belonging, everyone at Tasmanian is expected to support a mutual understanding of ideas, an open exploration of all our differences, as well as works together constructively and cooperatively with all the stakeholders alike. Technology: this is aimed at develop and ensuring the best information technology strategy, as well as implement systems that are capable of managing the current and the anticipated growth needs (Richards & Lyneham, 2010). Crime prevention as well as safety: this is aimed at the development of a comprehensive crime prevention program, which aid in the establishment of evidence based. This will then aid in the determination of the impact of offender and related programs within the institutions as well as the community, in order to reduce victimization and criminality (Richards & Lyneham, 2010). Transparency, outreach and partnerships: the institution is open to entering partnerships, as well as the development of meaningful programs alongside the processes of promoting a shared responsibility for the safety of the community (Richards & Lyneham, 2010). Tasmanian institution is known to be a secure facility, in which minors are dedicated as delinquents. The institution’s aim is prepare convicted people for a successful community

Bill Gates and George W Bush Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Bill Gates and George W Bush - Essay Example    Bill Gates, the Chairman of Microsoft, has built his reputation as a business leader of repute and extraordinary class and finesse (Gates, 1996). He inaugurated Microsoft with Paul Allen. Bill Gates held different positions within the company itself. He was the CEO as well as the Chief Software Architect until some time back and later on he left Microsoft in order to do some work within the philanthropic fields. Bill Gates undoubtedly remains as one of the biggest shareholders in the company. His share in the common stock stands at more than 8 percent. Microsoft is a world-renowned software giant which has made it big due to Bill Gates’ commitment towards his very own company. It has annual sales of more than $41 Billion, which speaks for its true prowess. The company has more than 65,000 employees on board in around 100 nations of the world. The company operates for the purposes of licensing, development, support and manufacture of computer equipment and technology and makes use of a number of different software products. Bill Gates has been instrumental in creating the much-needed difference within the reigns of Microsoft. Because of this very fact, the company has made it huge within the business world (Fridson, 2001). His practices and work domains have been openly discussed, analyzed and applied upon in other business regimes as well. He is taken as a true visionary leader within the different business processes and undertakings. True to his potential, Bill Gates has been consistently producing results for this software giant and he now leaves behind a legacy which can perform upon his vision and working commitment for a long period of time in the future. He has set the platform for the company to move forward – day after day (Wallace, 1993).   

Attention Deficit Disorder Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Attention Deficit Disorder - Term Paper Example This leads to a lack of attention and it affects activities of an individual in everyday life (Grosenbach 2000 & Whiteman et al 1995). Thus it is a fact that ADD is a real and treatable psychological disorder; not just an excuse for people to misbehave. ADD derives its roots from the early eighteenth century when it was diagnosed by George Still. The name however was not designated for the disorder in 1902 by Still. George Still found 20 children with problems of attention deficiency and postulated a theory which stated that the children may be suffering from some genetic disorder which accounted for their unusual behavior. At that time the disorder was named as the Defect of Moral Thought by George Still. These symptoms were then analyzed again in 1922 and they were named as â€Å"Post Encephalitic Behavior Disorder†. In 1937 Charles Bradley used stimulants to treat children who were supposed to be suffering from this disorder and it was because of this work that in 1956 Rita lin as a drug was introduced to treat the hyperactivity disorder. In early 1960 the disorder was named as â€Å"Minimal Brain Dysfunction† and still stimulants were used to treat the disorder. In the latter stages of 1960 the disorder became known as â€Å"Hyperkinetic Disorder of Childhood†. ... ADD is diagnosed on the basis of psychiatric assessment and a detailed in depth discussion with the parents or teachers, and on the basis of a questionnaire taken by the child if he or she is old enough. The data collected is compared with a standard list of signs and symptoms, termed as "Diagnostic And Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders IV" (DSM 4) for North America and with "International Statistical Classification of diseases and related health problems (ICD 10)" for European Nations, where ADD is given the name of "hyperkinetic disorder" (Berger et al 2008). The affected individuals lack the ability to stay focused and are inattentive. They are hyperactive and are easily distracted. These symptoms can be present individually or as a combination of both of the above. ADD is the most common psychiatric disorder diagnosed in children affecting them at the frequency of 3-5%, though 4-7% of the affected children continue to suffer in the adulthood as well. Boys are affected 2-4 ti mes more frequently than girls are. These symptoms are considered a part of normal developmental behavior of a child at a young age, but when these symptoms do not resolve with increasing age or if the severity of the symptoms worsens, and then this leads to the diagnosis of ADHD (Southhall 2007; Berger et al 2008). According to the National Resource Center on ADHD, 5-8 percent of children of the school going age are affected with this condition and 2-4 percent of adults develop this disorder. The Center for Disease Control and Prevention has also indicated that 8 million children in the United States between the ages of 3 to 17 years have been diagnosed by this

Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 13

Management - Essay Example Management, during the middle and late 1800s was not a formal field of study. The emergence of early thoughts regarding management, when looked from today’s perspective was a mere response to the problems that had arisen during those times. The start of industrial revolution had prompted management to emerge as a formal course of study over the years to follow. The shift from agriculture to manufacturing during the industrial revolution had resulted in the increase in urbanization and growth in factories. This overall growth in production called for a greater integration and facilitation of efforts of a huge number of people. In order to ensure adequate production, managers were forced to address certain issues. Even when these issues were addressed in an organized field of study back then, there were some ideas that laid down the groundwork for management as a discipline to emerge. These ideas were classified as the pre-classical viewpoint. Robert Owen’s pioneering idea was that he â€Å"advocated concern for the working and living conditions of workers (Bartol 2001, 39).† Being a cotton mill entrepreneur in Scotland, Owen considered providing considerable improvements to the work environment of its workforce. According to Bartol, â€Å"Owen tried to improve the living conditions of the employees by upgrading streets, houses, sanitation, and the educational system in New Lanark, [Scotland] (2001, 39).† Owen’s idea seemed to be relevant today, being the cornerstone of the modern human resource management philosophy. Charles Babbage was known for the first practical mechanical calculator that laid the foundation for the modern calculators and computers. In pursuit of his projects, Babbage was able to find ways to address problems that he faced. These explorations of ways lead Babbage to some ideas such as prediction of work specialization and profit sharing plan, which had been his contribution to management theory.

Ethics in Conducting Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Ethics in Conducting - Research Paper Example The term ethics simply referred to the behaviour and moral conducts of any person. Generally, when the people talk about ethics, everyone think that, differentiation between the right and wrong is called ethics. This definition is right up to some level, but it does not include other necessary elements those are necessary to fulfil the ethical requirements. If you are going to write any of the literature review or any other research paper, then there are many ethical requirements that should be considered for quality paper. For better understanding, some of the necessary elements for conducting ethical research are mentioned below separately. Originality of the material is the main element of any research paper. For this purpose, the main ethical requirement is that, your material should be original and based upon on your own research and work. You are not allowed to use the technique of plagiarism in your research work. The term plagiarism is generally referred to the situation of taking the credit of some other’s work. For example, you want to address the audience through your research paper, but you use the information that is based on some other’s work, then this act is treated unethical by every mean. You are not allowed to use the technique of copy and paste with your work. That does not mean that you cannot refer to someone else work. You can use other’s work to gain the ideas or improving your own work. In some research papers, you are also not allowed to copy the ideas of others, but it is only in some extreme cases. As it is mentioned above that the research papers are referred to valid source of information. So â€Å"honesty† is also treated as a major element of ethical factors. For example, you are going to make a research paper on some scientific research then you must ensure that you are honest gathering all scientific information

IT-8 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

IT-8 - Essay Example 2. Does the technology even exist to support a new inventory system? This would be accomplished by speaking with external vendors, as well as scrutinizing the IS capabilities of other companies (as a benchmark) to uncover whether a system exists which can support a new IS system and end the paper hassles. 3. Who will support these new systems? This question is a very important one, as the business will be forced to allocate specific workers to monitor the new inventory system and the new Web-based applications. This will represent potential payroll increases, thus it should be addressed to management parties responsible for making these decisions. 4. How will the new IS system be promoted to build business? This would be addressed to the appropriate marketing management who must determine how best to let employees and customers know that they have a new system designed to facilitate the exchange of information (regarding inventory and the new website) from one outlet to another. Because the new website is designed to assist online customers in making purchases, it is imperative that each product is appropriately linked to both product support pages and the checkout feature. This will entail running through the testing procedures, moving products to their virtual checkout cart, and assessing whether the application allows for purchase without any disruption to the consumer. Step 2 in this process is to identify whether the site’s background, fonts, screen sizes, etc. are all created in a way that will not slow down the consumers’ computer or make the site difficult to read. Appropriate colors, as well, will make the site more visually friendly and inviting to the customer. In order to test this, the site will need to be reviewed by the testing group to determine whether the site causes slowdowns or other issues that turn off the customer from making a purchase. Each individual user

Romance and romantic medievalism Essay Example for Free

Romance and romantic medievalism Essay John Keats poem, La Belle Dame Sans Merci, presents a knight on his horse who meets a fairy lady but develops this clichi scenario into an exploration of the relationship between, the presumed male superiority and female innocence. It is a ballad that evokes medieval times. However, if one is expecting a stereotypical glorification of these, Keats rather has an interestingly critical approach to the archetypes of medieval romance and romantic medievalism. The identity of the titular female character is kept a mystery. We only know about her through the males interpretation of her. An essential point in this poem since it leads to the implicit meaning by the author. La Belle Sans Merci is a perfect example of how well-worn aspects as love such as sexual desire and unknown identity can be used to present a striking theme in a simple manner. These aspects are combined in a medieval set. The medieval setting is reinforced for the reader through the poems form. It is a ballad, which is full of fittingly old-fashioned diction and syntax. By his antiquated expression and his hypnotically monotone quadrametre, Keats achieves a mysterious and gloomy atmosphere with the first couple of stanzas of the poem. O what can ail thee, knight-at-arms, So haggard and so woebegone? (L. 5-6) To use Keatss own words, the mood is woebegone. This clearly reflects the knights emotions as the unknown individual, whose voice opens the poem, asks him about his problems. This is clear evidence that the whole poem is actually a dialogue between the knight and an unknown character possibly identifiable with the poet. The first two stanzas start with a question a clear indication of antiphonal or dialogic style being employed. O what can ail thee, knight-at-arms, Alone and palely loitering? (L. 1-2) This unknown character is the speaker in the first three whole stanzas, after which the knight begins to tell of his surreal experience with this fairy. At this point, one could argue that it starts to get interesting. The keywords throughout the next five stanzas are presumed control, power, desire and superiority. Obviously the knight is somehow intrigued by this fairy. In what way, remains ambiguous in keeping with Keatss poetic style. Nevertheless, no doubt is left when one examines the diction that the knight has a distinct sexual desire for her: She lookd at me as she did love, And made sweet moan. (L. 19-20) The knight interprets her sweet moan as sexual and romantic interest even though he has no reason whatsoever to believe that the fairy is essentially interested: And sure in language strange she said I love thee true! (L. 27-28) It is rather his own presumption that makes him imagine this. Thus a still more surreal dream scenario arises within an already surreal world of fairies etc. This way of thinking leads the knight into a form of blind obsession. It is this ecstasy that leads him to his misery. From stanza five where he makes a garland and bracelets for the fairy until stanza eight where she takes him to her elfin grot, he presents himself is in charge of virtually everything. I set her on my pacing steed, (L. 21) She found me roots of relish sweet (L. 25) These are clear examples that indicate that either the knight acts upon the fairy or the fairy acts for him in keeping with conservative sexual roles. It can be assumed that this situation suits him since he nothing else saw all day long. The knight does not hesitate to convey his emotions nor is he the mysterious part in this poem. But loss of control appears in stanza eight when the knight enters onto the fairys territory. Certainly he goes to her home and he may go further than that: She took me to her elfin grot, And there she wept and sighd full sore, (L. 29-30) The subject of the sentences changes; now it is the fairy that acts and the knight becomes a passive character in the poem. This should be considered as the moment when the knights misery commences. Another, yet stronger example of this is found in the next stanza, And there she lulled me asleep, (L. 33). This line is attention-grabbing since it is not only the start of the knights misery, but can also be seen in the context of the male losing out in the battle between sexes. Suddenly the feminine character gets the upper hand in a poem set in the middle ages and written at the beginning of the 19th century. The clichi -like knight on pacing steed strong, handsome and should win over every lady that he desires. Instead he is utterly unmanned by the extremely sexy feminine fantasy character, whose identity remains a mystery throughout the poem, while his psyche is bared. The mysterious identity of the fairy and the ambiguity as to whether she did anything at all to the knight other than leave him is central to Keats message. If we knew more about her, it would no longer be a mystery to the reader whether she did entrance him or whether he has just fantasized all those Pale warriors, Death pale were they all; They cried La Belle dame sans Merci, Hath thee in thrall! Assuming the fairy was human, she could most probably speak and not only make sweet moan. Just one statement from the fairy could lead to a clarification of the real causes of knights apparently miserable situation and that would kill the point of the poem. In conclusion, Keats succeeds in revitalizing the medieval ballad form and romance themes by inverting their clichi s. He thereby succeeds to a high degree in questioning male assumptions of sexual dominance and the reader is left with a lot to think about after reading the poem.

Barriers to Entrepreneurship Development in Tajikistan

Barriers to Entrepreneurship Development in Tajikistan Introduction The development of the entrepreneurship as an essential component of the economy of Tajikistan is taking place for the past 19 years, in spite of its certain downturn during the civil war in the country in 1991-1997. Within the given period, the legal framework for the regulation of business activities was developed and amendments to the particular conditions of the governmental policy related to the entrepreneurship support were made. The stage of the entrepreneurship establishment required the improvement of its sectoral structure and enhancement of the economic efficiency. It is obvious that the prospects of its development are directly related to the alleviation of particular barriers which business people currently encounter. At the same time the inception of economical growth should initiate the positive influence on the entrepreneurship promotion. The essay will exclusively focus on the analysis of entrepreneurship establishment and development in Tajikistan with the reference to SME sector including the importance of entrepreneurship for the socio-economic development. In addition, the essay will describe main barriers to entrepreneurship development and possible ways to alleviate the difficulties related to its promotion. The rationale for the decision to write about this specific issue is based on following particular reasons: there are very few research works describing problems of entrepreneurship development in Tajikistan. Although, some scholars described these issues in the former Soviet Union countries, in most of their works Tajikistan is only slightly mentioned among the other countries. The objective of this given paper is to define the entrepreneurship situation in Tajikistan, the importance of its development as well as to identify the difficulties for entrepreneurship development and to provide recommendation for the solution of the existing problems. In order to reach the stated objective, the following research questions were raised. First of all it is important to understand, what are the main barriers to entrepreneurship development in Tajikistan? Secondly, what are the possible ways to promote entrepreneurship development? The theoretical and empirical grounds for the given paper are the analytical works of Tajik and foreign scholars, statistical data, as well as surveys and reports of various international institutions. Due to the analysis of both foreign and Tajik experts assessments the reader will be enabled to find the dual opinion on the described issue. Chapter One The role and importance of entrepreneurship in Tajikistan 1.1 Tajikistan at a glance: background information In order to explain the entrepreneurship situation in Tajikistan, it is worth to describe the background information about the country. Being a landlocked country, Tajikistan is located far from the main Eurasian highways. Infrastructure is poorly developed due to the fact that 93% of the all territory is mountains. In fact there are a number of scientific works describing the linkages between the infrastructure and the country development, including development of the entrepreneurship. However, in the framework of present essay the impact of poor infrastructure to the entrepreneurship development will not be discussed. During 1929 1991 Tajikistan was a member of the Soviet Union. After the breakdown of the Soviet Union in 1991, the country gained independence and started the transition to the market economy. After gaining its independence, the country was immediately faced with the economic problems caused by the collapse of the centrally-planned Soviet economy: such as, disruption of guaranteed markets, withdrawal of subsidies and instability of exchange (Middleton, 2007). Due to these facts, economical as well as political transformations of Tajikistan were difficult, primarily due to the holdover of various centrally planned command and control approaches to the national development (Suhir, 2003). According to Johnes, Tajikistan can be considered as the poorest of the countries of the former Soviet Union. At the beginning of its independence the position of the country was undermined by a civil war which lasted from 1991 until 1997. During that time the economy suffered significantly. In addition, the war has seriously disrupted the entire infrastructure of the country and contributed to the emigration of almost one million people, this number was equaled to a sixth of the total population. After the end of the civil war, the government undertook an aggressive program of reforms. As a consequence, by the beginning of 2000, the majority of small sized enterprises had been privatized, and most of the large enterprises were transformed into joint stock companies. Moreover, almost half of all cropland belonged to private people. In addition, being a neighbor of Afghanistan, the country has fallen victim of the drug trade and has been directly affected by drug-related criminal infi ltration (Johnes, 2002). Despite its growth, Tajik economy is not still fully recovered from the effects of the collapse of the Soviet Union and the civil war. The gross domestic product in 2007 was still only 72% of the 1991 level in real terms, which is visually represented in the Chart 1. Chart 1: Real GDP continues to recover but has not reached the level of 1991 Source: Business Environment in Tajikistan as seen by Small and Medium Enterprises, IFC, 2009 1.2 Definition and types of entrepreneurship in Tajikistan The process of society democratization and the implementation of market relations which are taking places in Tajikistan nowadays caused a variety of positive effects. Entrepreneurship which influences all economical spheres can be considered as such effect. In developed countries the role and the importance of entrepreneurship are being evaluated quite high. Our country, which has chosen the path of market economy, is considering the issues of entrepreneurship and strengthening of its role as a matter of paramount importance (Rahmon, 2001, own translation). According to the State program of Protection and support of entrepreneurship in the Republic of Tajikistan for the years 2002-2005, entrepreneurship is described as an activity which independently carried out by the persons registered in an order established by the law; this activity is directed to the earning of profit from use of property, sale of goods, manufacture, performance of works and rendering of services. Entrepreneurship development is one of the priority directions of financial and economic policy in the conditions of market economy and it is directed on increase in production and rendering of services as well as provision of new workplaces (Soliev, 2004). It is quite possible that the reason of such simplified definition of entrepreneurship was to motivate as much as possible people to become entrepreneurs. Tajik scholar Juraboev described entrepreneurship as a search for new spheres of rationalization and a profitable investment of recourses, performance of new combinations in manufacture, movement to the new markets, and creation of new products. It is aimed at making a profit above the average level (Juraboev, 2003, own translation). The tendency of entrepreneurship development in Tajikistan started from the period of 1993 1994. At that time the quantity of enterprises which performed entrepreneurial activity and had a status of legal entity was equaled to 3304 enterprises for the year of 1993 and 3988 enterprises in 1994 (Statistical yearbook , 2006). The entrepreneurship area was dominated by the cooperatives, farmers, private and individual enterprises. However, the crisis in the economy caused by the severance of economic relations between the former Soviet Union countries which had common free market zone before, and the post-war factors with corresponding decrease of nation welfare became the reasons of reduction in the quantity of private enterprises, especially SMEs. Nevertheless, in later years the entrepreneurship in Tajikistan, which for the purposes of this essay is described by the SME sector, started to recover from the consequences of Soviet Union breakup The obvious development of SME sector can be proved by the available data that shows that in October 2006 the amount of small and medium enterprises in Tajikistan was equaled to 12167, including 7578 active enterprises. The structure of the SME sector can be described as follows: the highest amount of 38.4 % is commercial enterprises, the share of trade and catering 17.2%, construction 13.3 %, industry 12.3%. The part of other economic activities is equals to 20% (Nazarov, 2006). In addition to the information provided above it is important to identify the SME sector in Tajikistan. In compliance with the Law of the Republic of Tajikistan ÂÂ «On State Protection and Support of Entrepreneurship in the Republic of TajikistanÂÂ » passed in 2005, the SME sector is composed of three typologies of businesses. The first group is individual entrepreneurs, who is involved in a business activity without forming a legal entity and operate it at their own risk. The second group is dehkah farms enterprises involved in the production and sale of agricultural products. Dehkan farmers operate as individual entrepreneurs according to the State Registration Certificate. Third group includes small and medium sized companies (Law On State Protection and Support of Entrepreneurship, 2005, own translation). Moreover, the special SMEs criteria are also being significant. As consistent with the Tax Code of Tajikistan, small enterprises are individual entrepreneurs and legal entities which perform business activity and their gross revenue (before taxes) is not exceed 150 000 USD. The average quantity of employees should not exceed 50 for agricultural sector and 30 for other sectors. Respectively, medium enterprises are individual entrepreneurs and legal entities whose gross revenue is more than 150 000 USD but does not exceed 3.7 million USD. The average quantity of employees can vary from 50 to 200 for agricultural sector and from 30 to 100 for other sectors (Tax Code, 2009, own translation). In fact the Micro-enterprises are not defined in the Tax Code. 1.3 The importance of the entrepreneurship in the socio-economic development of the country Nowadays private enterprises are functioning almost in all fields and spheres of the economy of Tajikistan. With the presence of necessary support, the entrepreneurship plays an important role: it contributes to the state budget, creates new employment and stimulates the social and economic development of the regions. Furthermore, entrepreneurs play a significant role in the social and political life of society. According to the statistics, in the year of 2007 approximately 1.7% or 19 thousand people of all population working in the private sector belonged to the SMEs. Over the last years, the quantity of employees of small and medium enterprises has increased by 14.5%, while the amount of enterprises has risen by 35%. However, the most interesting fact is that the total quantity of employees in the SME sector in 2007 was lower compare to the 1998 (Statistical Yearbook, 2008). Visually this information is presented in the Chart 2. Chart 2: Dynamics of the quantity of employees in SMEs (in thousands) Source: Tajikistan: 15 Years of Independence. Statistical yearbook, Dushanbe, 2006 It can be assumed that the relatively low quantity of employees in the SME sector is resulted from the tax burden of the employers. In fact, the amount of social tax which the employers have to pay equals to 25% out of the total payroll fund. Moreover, in contrast to the other countries, the existing taxation system in Tajikistan does not have the tax remissions in connection with the increase of the quantity of workers (Nazarov, 2006). Furthermore, the role of entrepreneurship in the market economy is very significant in terms of solving a number of socio-economic problems as well as in the poverty alleviation. Small and medium enterprises create the most favorable opportunities for the entrepreneurship especially at its initial stage. The presence of the substantial amount of SMEs on the market promotes the competition. And by promoting the competition, small and medium enterprises stimulate the increase of production efficiency as well as production growth which in its turn may cause the real growth of the economy. As a short summary of the given section about the importance of entrepreneurship in general and SMEs in particular, it can be stated that it is both the aim and the tool for the development of market economy. The dual role of entrepreneurship is confirmed by the analysis of the functions of SMEs which were classified into two groups. These groups are objective functions and tool functions. The objective functions promote the development of small and medium entrepreneurship and being considered as one of the governmental tasks. These functions include the impact on the unemployment reduction, the acceleration of the technological progress by means of innovations and ensuring the social and political stability in the society. According to the tool functions, small and medium entrepreneurship is being used in order to limit the tendencies of monopolized economy, to support formation of a middle class and to fill the particular market niches which are not attractive for the large enterpr ises (Chapek, 2004. own translation). 1.4 Characteristics of entrepreneurship development in Tajikistan The establishment of entrepreneurship in Tajikistan started at the time when the legislative foundations were absent. The Law On entrepreneurship activity was passed only in December 1991 and up to day it has completely changed. This law had a lot of disadvantages which negatively affected the process of entrepreneurship establishment in the country. Other economic laws which could support and secure the entrepreneurial activity in Tajikistan were passed later. For instance, The law on property (1996), The law on privatization of state property (1997) as well as laws related to taxation, customs and currency circulation (Nazarov, 2006). The formation of the entrepreneurship took place at the period of destabilization of finances and significant level of unemployment, which were caused by the collapse of the centralized control system. Another unique feature of entrepreneurship formation and development in Tajikistan is the limitation of strategic behavior. There are two reasons explaining it. First of all, during the first years of the market economy establishment, the formation of entrepreneurship was influenced by the substantial advantages of short-term transactions in the sphere of circulation and in the financial market. This circumstance created an appropriate attitude, stereotypes of thinking and behaving. Secondly, there is a significant gap between the profitability of long-term investments in manufacture and short-term financial transactions. The conditions for the implementation of long-term investments projects in the production sphere are such that invested funds will be paid off only in 3-5 years; howe ver, in conditions of the transition economy this process may take even longer. Therefore such areas of entrepreneurship as trade and catering remain the most attractive for the entrepreneurs (Soliev, 2004). According to the statistics, at the beginning of 2008 there were 55,8 thousands of enterprises registered in Tajikistan; in fact, 60% of them are private enterprises including both SMEs and large enterprises (Statistical Yearbook, 2008). There is a trend toward positive increase of total amount of enterprises in general as well as private enterprises in particular, as it is demonstrated in the Chart 3. Chart 3: Dynamics of total amount of enterprises, including private enterprises (in thousands) Source: Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of Tajikistan, Dushanbe, 2008 The dynamic development of SME sector is caused by several specific advantages of the latter. According to the Kamarov, the most important fact is that SMEs are able to get their own market share, although they have much less funds for implementation of important strategic researches compare to large enterprises. In addition, small and medium businesses are quite flexible and mobile, which allow them to react fast for the market demand as well as to adapt for the changing conditions. Small entrepreneurship can be characterized as an originative type of economic behavior which at the same time being described as special entrepreneurial spirit and creative action (Kamarov, 2009). Another important fact is that on every 1000 of economically active population in Tajikistan there is in average only one SME; in contrast, in Russia there are 3 enterprises on every 1000 of economically active population (Davgyalo, 2007). Chapter Two Barriers to entrepreneurship development 2.1 General overview of difficulties related to the entrepreneurship development in Tajikistan As it is demonstrated by the world experience, the more opportunities for the widening of the activity by the entrepreneurs, the higher growth rate can be seen for the country. Under the given circumstances, the creation of the favorable conditions for the entrepreneurship development is a crucial factor. The entrepreneurship of Tajikistan faces particular barriers, among the others they are: instability and imperfection of the legislative system related to entrepreneurship, high level of taxes, complexity of tax collection, insufficiency of the start-up capital and current capital, difficulties with the access to bank loans, corruption, shortage of the qualified staff, difficulties with the rent of the production space as and others. In most cases there is no proper social and personal security for owners and employees of the private enterprises (Soliev, 2004). The current institutional mechanism of entrepreneurship promotion demonstrates that although the entrepreneur is secured by the laws and governmental instruments, the level of entrepreneurship development is not correspond to the high taxation level and crediting rates. (Asrorov et al., 2004). Therefore the entrepreneurs are acting in the environment of legal and economical limitation. The barriers faced by entrepreneurs impede the inflow of billions of dollars of potential profit for the country each year and threaten to derail the political and economic transition. These losses take place due to the ill-designed, complicated laws and regulations that unnecessarily raise the cost of doing business in the formal sector. As a result of high costs of doing business, entrepreneurs are using in their operations limited funds in order to survive with presence of low income and consequently they are losing the economic potential. In addition, the costly business regulations encourage potential investors to invest in the more favorable business environments and therefore country faces the lack of the needed investments (Suhir, 2003). The experience of entrepreneurship establishment and development in Tajikistan demonstrates that the majority of business owners are not aimed at the further growth. Their main goal is to ensure the stable existence, to preserve their capital and market position (Urdashev, 2005). The given situation can be explained by two reasons. First of all, there is no effective system for the stimulation of entrepreneurial activity. Secondly, entrepreneurs are experiencing the certain pressure from the tax, custom and law-enforcement authorities. 2.2 Main barriers faced by entrepreneurship in Tajikistan In this section of the paper the main barriers to the entrepreneurship development will be described in details. These barriers are: difficulties related to licensing, access to finance, imperfection of taxation system, poor infrastructure, corruption and lack of sufficient knowledge by entrepreneurs. Licensing IFC defined license as a special permit issued by a state body authorizing a business to carry out a certain activity under specific terms and conditions. When a business is subject to licensing requirements, it must obtain the specific license before starting its activities. Thus licensing happens after business registration, but before a company is allowed to start operations in the activity to be licensed (IFC, 2009). The barriers related to the licensing can be classified as the continuation of the Soviet system of permissions whereby one must obtain approval from the authorities in order to perform even the smallest tasks. The present permissive entrepreneurial climate which characterized by abundant regulation, continues to inflict losses on entrepreneurial activity in all sectors of the economy (Suhir, 2003). According to the world practice, the low-risk activities and those which do not involve any limited resources should not be subject to licensing. In fact, Tajikistan licenses some activities that are not licensed in many other countries; for instance, real estate valuation and tourism (IFC, 2009). The Chart 4 illustrates that in spite of the recent reforms, the number of activities licensed in Tajikistan is still relatively high compare to some other countries. Chart 4 Number of economic activities subject to licensing in selected countries Source: Business Environment in Tajikistan as seen by Small and Medium Enterprises, IFC, 2009 For instance, IFC reports that eight of the 65 licensed economic activities are related to the transport. However, the implementing regulations of the Licensing Laws divide these eight economic activities into 22 sub-activities, each of that in its turn requires a separate license. In addition, the period of validity of licenses as well as their cost still remains a problem. The law foresees that the minimum period of validity for the license is 3 years; however, on practice the licenses are being issued for the period which in average is less than one year (IFC, 2009). The short periods of licenses validity impede the investments and long-term development as well as create the grounds for the extortion by the officials. Access to finance One of the main conditions of the entrepreneurship development is the existence of proper financial infrastructure. In general the Tajik financial system was growing rapidly over the past years, although it still remains small. Recent data shows, that there are twelve commercial banks (including one state-owned bank), seven credit societies, one non-bank financial institution and eighty eight microfinance institutions operating in Tajikistan (IFC, 2009). The banking systems in Central Asia in general and in Tajikistan in particular can be considered as insufficient since they impose impossible demands on entrepreneurs due to the unreasonable time-frames and terms of credit repayments, it is difficult to provide collateral and to find a guarantor for securing a loan (Suhir, 2003). Thus in order to get a loan from some commercial banks the entrepreneur should provide the collateral which values up to 3 times more compare to the actual amount of requested loan. The survey performed by the IFC demonstrates that more than half of rejected loan applications in 2007 were due to the insufficient loan collateral (IFC, 2009). In addition, the process to formalization and registration of the collateral is complicated and expensive at the present time. Besides that, the loans themselves became not very attractive because of the interest rate. Additional factor of distrust to the banking area is the lack of reliable mechanism for the protection of the borrowers interests. In this respect the majority of entrepreneurs actually not able to use services of commercial banks. The Chart 5 demonstrates what kind of problems entrepreneurs encounter in terms of access to the finance. And it is quite clear that the most important issue is high interest rates. Chart 5: Main obstacles as identified by the potential borrowers (in %) Source: Business Environment in Tajikistan as seen by Small and Medium Enterprises, IFC, 2009 In general, in compliance with the Doing business report, Tajikistan is ranked as 167th overall in terms of easiness to getting credit (World Bank, 2010). And firms consistently rate access to credit as among the greatest barriers to their operation and growth. Taxation system The modern tendency for the entrepreneurship development can be described as the one with the lack of unity of economic aims between entrepreneurship and government. On the one hand, the governmental regulations related to the entrepreneurial activity are grounded on the creation of the favorable conditions for the entrepreneurship development; however, on the other hand, they are directed on provision the maximum tax revenues to the state budget. At present there are 18 different taxes in Tajikistan. According to the statistics, forty-eight percent of countrys tax revenues in 2008 came from the value-added tax. Tax code states that the value-added tax is equal to 18%, income tax 30% and social tax 25% (Tax Code, 2009). Such level of taxation does not correspond with the taxation systems used in developed countries. As a rule, developed countries increase tax rates in order to restrain the overproduction (Davgyalo, 2007). In fact there is no problem of overproduction in Tajikistan. On the whole the tax regime in Tajikistan is characterized by high complexity and instability. The Tajik Tax Code, which went into effect in 2004, has been amended 9 times since that time. Unfortunately given amendments neither caused the simplification of tax obligations nor improved tax administration. The World Bank Groups Doing Business 2009 report demonstrates evidence that taxes impose a heavy burden on business taxpayers in the country. This report ranks Tajikistan as 159th out of 181 countries in terms of ease of complying with the tax obligations (World Bank, 2009). Besides, the procedure of preparation the tax forms is complicated, the average Dehkan farmer or individual entrepreneur has spent almost 5 working days on the filing and on payment of taxes in 2007. While the average SME spent more than three weeks on this process. Moreover, there is a lack of effective communication infrastructure for the acceptance of the tax reports by mail. Although the Tax Code states that it is possible for taxpayers to submit their tax declarations in three ways: by certified mail, in person, or electronically; in practice, entrepreneurs submit tax reports in person. In addition, the survey performed by IFC shows that that submission of tax declarations involves a significant period of time spent waiting in lines at the tax office in order to get the appropriate signatures (IFC, 2009). Corruption The harmful nature of corruption between government and business enterprises is a classic conflict of the political economy, which goes back to Adam Smiths The Wealth of Nations. In the socialist period, bribery was widely practiced as a sort of necessary evil among citizens in Soviet Union Countries. It operated as a special social mechanism used to overcome obstacles established by bureaucratic systems as well as chronic shortages of supply which could affect business operations and everyday activities. In contrast, in the transition period, the corruption between entrepreneurs and bureaucrats started to take place more for self-interest rather than as a socially necessary evil like it was in Soviet Union time (Ichiro Iwasaki, 2007). Interesting explanation of the existence of corruption was provided by Clark and Naito in their article. According to them, corruption is endemic in all countries of Central Asia. However, the additional factor which contributes to the level of corruption results from the existing barriers with respect to the cooperation between various Ministries. In fact, nowadays the level of cooperation is relatively small and as a consequence there is a shortage of transparency in the system. The lack of transparency in its turn allows corruption to flourish as there are no checks and bounds on the system (Clark, Naito, 1998). The number of surveys performed by the World Bank confirms the fact that corruption remains a main constraint for entrepreneurship in Tajikistan. This demonstrated by the high frequency of informal gifts requested from enterprises by the government officials, so called Graft Index. The Graft Index shows the proportion of instances in which enterprises were either requested or expected to pay an informal payment for licenses, permits or public services (IFC, 2009). Visually the situation with corruption in Tajikistan in comparison with some other countries of Eastern Europe and Central Asia is presented at the Chart 6. Chart 6: Tajikistan has the highest graft index in Europe and Central Asia (ECA) ECA Regional Average Source: Business Environment in Tajikistan as seen by Small and Medium Enterprises, IFC, 2009 However, the survey performed by IFC in 2007 demonstrates that the situation related to the informal payments in Tajikistan has improved over the last years. According to the survey responses, entrepreneurs were asked for or expected to pay bribes or give informal gifts in 2007 fewer compare to previous years. Although this is a positive development, it is too early to conclude that corruption is no longer a problem. Data demonstrate that 21% of enterprises have defined the informal payments as a main obstacle for their business activity. In fact, only high tax rates were defined as a major obstacle more often than corruption (IFC, 2009). Lack of the sufficient knowledge by entrepreneurs Johnes stated that the main resource which is available to Tajikistan is its people. Generally the level of education in the country is high, with a literacy rate about 98% (Johnes, 2002). However, one of the obstacles which may be additionally observed in Tajikistan nowadays is the lack of the sufficient knowledge in the area of entrepreneurship. This fact can be explained by taking a look at the history. In the Soviet era entrepreneurship was considered as a speculation. The Great Soviet Encyclopedia defines speculation as a process of buying up the goods on closed markets and resale those goods on open and deficiency markets in conditions of constraining the freedom of trade, for example, during the war (Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 1978, own translation). This activity was punishable either by high fines or imprisonment and due to this reason was considered as a part of the shadow economy. Based on the above mentioned information, the following conclusion can be drawn the entrepreneurship as an activity as well as entrepreneurs are still being considered as unacceptable or even discreditable activity by the people of older generation. It is obvious that problems related to managerial issues are really crucial for the private entrepreneur due to the reason that the manager should be a specialist with a broad knowledge in the area of management, finance, accounting and marketing. In fact, nowadays the universities of the country are not preparing such versatile managers for the private sector (Urdashev, 2005). The current situation in Tajikistan is such that the majority of entrepreneurs have problems due to the lack of proper knowledge. Thus according to the IFC survey, more than one-third of individual entrepreneurs did not keep any financial or tax records in 2007 (IFC, 2009), despite the existing requirements. The responses presented in the Chart 7 demonstrate the reasons for the absence of necessary records. It is clear that the lack of knowledge is a very significant issue in this respect. Chart 7: Reasons f

Piezo-resistive pressure sensor

Piezo-resistive pressure sensor Introduction: Sensor is defined to be a device that can be responded to any type of signal and can receive those signals. The physical property of sensor is that it can convert any input into electrical signals with in electronic circuits. A sensor does not function itself because it is such larger system and consist of many detectors, signal processors and memory devices. In every device sensor is placed in either intrinsic or extrinsic states. Sensors are of two kinds, one is passive that can directly generate electric signal and responds to external factors. Another is active sensors these needed some external power of excitation signal for operation of the device. Sensors can be classified into many ways according to the usage. The classification scheme arranged from simple to complex. Sensors are divided into physical, chemical and biological type. The physical sensors consist of thermoelectric, photoelectric, electro elastic, photo elastic and pressure sensors. Sensor is the one of the MEMS application. Among different types of physical sensors iam discussing in this essay about the Piezo-Resistive pressure sensors.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Piezo-Resistive sensors are used to measure the strain on a silicon diaphragm. Piezo-Resistive sensor devices are widely used in bio-medical field. These types of sensors always need temperature sensors for calibrating the device. Piezo-Resistive pressure sensor is the commercial product that is successful in MEMS technology. For increase the progress in integrated circuits the sensors are combined with the Piezo-Resistive effect. These types of sensors are widely used in many applications like in pressure switches, pressure gauges and in automobile parts. In this essay in below the Piezo-Resistive pressure sensors physical principle, fabrication process and the design system and the applications of this type of sensors is explained. Physical principle: The Piezo-Resistive pressure sensor main principle is linearity and sensitivity. These two are the main principles involved in this type of sensor. Piezo-Resistive principle: An elastic material is taken and due to some source the strip of this material tends to move and if there is increase in longitudinal dimension then there will be decrease in lateral dimensions then cross section area will be decreased. If this is positive strain means there will be change in resistance value due to Piezo-Resistive effect. The pressure sensor consists of Silicon diaphragm, Piezo-Resistive in a wheat stone bridge and Silicon diaphragm is used to convert pressure into mechanical stress. The Piezo-Resistors converts stress into resistance and then finally resistivity changes into output voltage. Subsystems here are divided into pressure sensor with high sensitivity and good linearity and this entire setup. Linearity: Analysis of linearity begins with small deflection theories and deflections are small compared to thickness of diaphragm. If the error in linearity error is less than 0.3% then linearity error decreases as the length of resistivity changes. As the length of resistor increases then linearity error will be decreased. There are some steps to be followed in linearity. First the magnitude error must be lower than linearity error then shape of curves varies as the length of the materials changes. Then error moves from negative to positive applied pressure changes. In final step linearity error is no more symmetric and it will be irregular. If the diaphragm thickness increases then linearity error also reduces then error shifts from positive to negative sign. A best linearity error observed at a diaphragm with a thickness of 2.2 µm.The linearity error decreases if the thickness of diaphragm increases. When compared to linearity error in square and circular diaphragm means in ci rcular diaphragm occupies less area then square. Then large deflections are reduced in this case. Sensitivity: Sensitivity analysis is based on small deflection theories of plates. The pressure deflection relationship of plates is fabricated from isotropic and homogenous materials. The location and shape of resistors are also the effects of pressure sensors. Resistors are usually placed where there will be increase in stress larger to increase the sensitivity. The parameters are length L, width W, for the shape and the distance between in outer parallel resistor and the distance between in outer parallel resistor and diaphragm is 2dXt and distance between perpendicular resistor and diaphragm id dy.Sensitivity is approximated if all resistors are exactly same and have no Zero offset. In circular shape diaphragm the sensitivity is high at the edge and resistors are placed in radical directions. In top or bottom of diaphragm the sensitivity is high. Fabrication process: The pressure sensor chips are packaged individually for pre-moulded-housing packing techniques leading to low packaging throughout a large body. The packaging steps are shown in below and here top-down fabrication process takes place. A lithographic dam-ring approach is used to develop for fabricating the Piezo-Resistive pressure sensors. Initially a pressure sensor wafer with Pyrex glass combination is taken and the thickness of layer is up to 150 µm. The ultra thick layer of 150 µm with negative-tone positive resist is spin coated on the surface at a level up to 4inches. Then photolithography process is taken place to use dam-ring approach around the silicon membrane surface of the pressure surfaces. Then dicing process is used to separate the wafer and then splits into multiple pressure chips as observed. Then an adhesive material is placed on die pads on the substrate and then a dam-ring is then picked and placed on the die pads of organic substrate. Then it is heated to cross link the adhesive material and it will combine both pressure sensor and organic substrate. Then a wire bonding takes place between the aluminium bonding pads of the pressure sensors and the electrode pads of organic substrate. Then organic panel substrate is attached with pressure sensors and placed into a transfer molding and encapsulate the pressure sensors and organic panel substrate. Because the top surface is moulded with inner wall surface in a closed position then inner space of dam-ring is not fulfilled by the fluid epoxy moling compound (EMC) during molding process. Finally a pressure with a sensing channel space is separated from the organic substrate by using a saw machine after the EMC process. Dam-ring deposition: In photo resist model to achieve a wide operation window a specific coating thickness is required. For this high film thickness a photo resist with high viscosity is taken. A spin wafer and a hot plate are used for spin coating process of the dam-ring material. To produce a ultra thick sacrifice layer a two stage spin coating process is employed. Lithographic process is introduced to achieve a double layer of photo resist in dam-ring method. Transfer molding:As the pressure sensor is attached to organic substrate then substrate is placed in a transfer molding.To reduce the wrapage of encapsulated product the molding compound must be carefully chosen so that thermal expansion is close to that of organic substrate. To eliminate the wrapping of organic panel substrate a low molding temperature of 165 ° is utilized. The silicon membrane of pressure sensor and pressure loading of environment is reserved by the dam-ring. Design of the system: The majority available of micro-machined pressure sensors are bulk micro-machined Piezo-resistive devices. The Piezo-resistors are arranged in such a way by selectively doping portions of the diaphragm to form junction-isolated resistors. In an anisotropic material in silicon is defined by a tensor that relates the three directional components of the electric field to the three directional components of current flow. In a tensor general it has nine elements and expresses in a 3*3 matrix as they reduce to six independent values. Where Ei and Ji are electric field and current density components and ?i is the resistivity component. If the Cartesian axis is aligned to the (100) axes in a cubic crystal structure then Ï 1, Ï 2, Ï 3 are equal along the (100) axes denoted by Ï .The remaining components of matrix and then cross axis resistivitys will be zero due to unstressed silicon is electrically isotropic. Finally the change in the components in the matrix leads to six stress components by a 36 element tensor. This tensor is finally populated by three non-zero components as shown in below. Here ÃŽ  IJ co-efficient have units of Pa-1 and this can be either positive or negative. The ÃŽ  11 have the resistivity in any direction to stress in same directions. The equation (1) is derived along the (100) co-ordinate axes and convenient to apply. The fractional change is represented as ΔR/R = ÃŽ  LÏÆ'L+ÃŽ  TÏÆ'T. Where ÃŽ  L and ÏÆ'L are Piezo-resitive co-efficient and these are parallel to the direction of current flow and ÃŽ  t and ÏÆ't are values in transverse direction. Combining the equations by using a transformation of the co-ordinate system in (100) axes the equations can be stated as ÃŽ  L = ÃŽ  11+2(ÃŽ  44+ÃŽ  12-ÃŽ  11) * (L12m12+L12n12+n12m12) ÃŽ  t = ÃŽ  12-(ÃŽ  44+ÃŽ  12-ÃŽ  11) * (L12L22+m12m22+n12n22) Where L1, m1, n1 are the directions cosines of a vector that are parallel to the current flow and L2,m2,n2 are unit length vector perpendicular to the resistor. By combining and neglecting terms in above two equations (2 3) the Piezo-Resitive co-efficient is varied with doping level and operating temperature then p-type is placed in equation(4). ÃŽ   (N, T) =P (N, T) ÃŽ  ref. The longitudinal and transverse Piezo-resitive co-efficient in the surface of a (100) silicon wafer is observed. Observe that each figure in silicon wafer (100) splits into two halves as ÃŽ  L ÃŽ  t for both p-type and n-type in silicon. Then for p-type silicon both ÃŽ  L ÃŽ  t the peak is along (100) and for n-type silicon also peak is along (100).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  If the length of resistor decreases means then resistance also decreases then increase in power consumption is not favourable. If the width decreases then variations are observed along the non-ideal lithography. From the above it concludes that size of diaphragm reduces as the resistor have a large area between its perimeter and the centre. Advantages of Piezo-Resistive pressure sensors:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  At present today pressure sensors are used in a variety of applications in industries in overall MEMS market.Piezo electrical is used to measure high pressure with a diaphragm and widely used highly in pressure sensors. Piezo-Resistive force sensors have high applications that are fabricated using MEMS processes. The Piezo-Resistive pressure sensors are used for direct mounting on printed circuit boards. Piezo-Resistive are used to measure the cell consists of a glass back plate and the silicon chip with diffused resistor bridge. Main Piezo-Resistive pressure sensors applications are: It is used in barometric, small airplanes and used in robotic, sanitary and meteorology, air conditioning. These are used to improve sensitive, small size and are less in cost. Mainly some silicon sensors that use Piezo-Resistivity effect use a four element Wheatstone bridge configuration. Piezo-Resistive pressure sensors are low in cost and having small size and these have high resolution and have high sensitivity. Use of this element also removes four resistors that form during wheat stone bridge design. A cost effective current mode circuit is used to operate with a single Piezo-Resistive element. Ultra miniaturized 0.69 French Piezo-Resistive pressure sensors are designed for fabrication in bio-medical applications. These ultra-miniaturized Piezo-Resistive pressure sensors have many users in biomedical fields like in intra cranial pressure monitoring during nano-surgery. And also used for air monitoring in respiratory diseases, observing the blood pressure during surgery then for monitoring obstetrics and used for monitoring the urinary pressure in diagnosis for respective disorders.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The continuous development is reducing the catheter size leads to develop in ultra-miniaturized pressure sensors. The micro-maching technology in both industrial and automotive pressure sensors is very good. Due to these factors Piezo-Resistive sensors have some advantages. Like it has high tensile strength, it is low cost and has high elasticity also have good elastic properties and compatible in microcircuit technology. Pressure sensors and accelerometers both of these use Piezo-Resistive sensors with piezo electric effect. These Piezo-Resistive sensors also used in automotive applications it has up to now 40 applications in future they can be increased.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  For controlling the engine some sensors are used for controlling the engine and some are used as for good fuel economy and for controlling the engine. Accelerometers here are used for anti-skid braking, air bags and also in case of antiskid braking. Many transmissions are continuously developed that requires use of sensors and electronics to optimize transmission rations and power demand. These type of pressure sensors are also used in various industrial applications such as automobiles and also in biomedical applications. Pressure sensors are used in measurement of mechanical quantities like force, stress and other. Then biomedical applications are used to measure the control flow of blood pressure and force generated within heart cells. In capacitive sensors it has major problems in massive commercialization is sealing of capacitive cavity and the electrical lead transfer between vacuum-sealed cavity and outside world. To overcome this problem recently piezo resistive sensors are invented and these became major choice.To overcome so many number of difficulties these type of sensors are used.A nano crystalline silicon is used to achieve a high sensitive has been proposed. The silicon piezo resitive pressure sensors are used to increase the sensitivity by introducing stress in regions in the formation of elliptical holes.For continous monitoring on operational temperature and for signal to noise ratio the piezoresistor is taken into account.In biomedical applications the addition of sensitivity and temperature effect and the signal to noise ratio should laso be considered in order of design the system. The piezo resitive pressure sensor represents has one of MEMS applications that used in domestic appliances and used in various applications like laundary,washing machines and in vaccum cleaners.Differntial pressure sensors are used to measure the pressure difference in between two environments. Silicon has excellent properties in piezo resistive material as it changes the bulk resistivity when stress is apllied. For manufacturing new devices like electronic devices and maintaining high yield level is a challenge task that depends used for identifying the mechanism.Electronic sensors are mainly used in industrial automotion applications.Due to direct connection and profitability the manufacturing of yield is important.As is yield is 100% means it constantly improving the techniques. In all aircrafts pressure sensors are used in engine,fuel,hydraulics and in enviromental applications.By using these type of piezo resistive sensors increase in demand on weight,size,cost and in signal processing.These type of piezo-electric resitive sensors are used to built a small size,light weight and the low cost of value. These are the advantages of Piezo-Resistive pressure sensor that gives an idea why this sensor is more effective than compared to other sensors and why this type of Piezo-resistive pressure sensors are used. Conclusion: Sensors are been developed from past 20 years and widely been used in industrial and in biomedical. These sensors also offers a many type of sensors among them magnetic sensor are one type. By observing all the factors in above we can conclude that Piezo-Resistive pressure sensor is one type of sensor that have excellent properties in electrical and this sensor is fabricated in a very small size. The Piezo-Resistive pressure sensor has many advantages that mentioned in above essay. The fabrication process, main principle involved and the Design of the system of Piezo-Resistive pressure sensor is explained above. The output voltage of this Piezo-Resistive pressure sensor is small in magnitude. So due to this the output must be amplified to increase the S/N ratio and provides an output that is used in microprocessor system.Fianlly an Piezo-Resistive pressure sensor with an high output voltage with low fabrication cost must been developed. 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Biodiesel vs. Ethanol Essay -- Compare Contrast Fuel Essays Papers

Biodiesel vs. Ethanol Both biodiesel and ethanol are derivatives of biomass that have been processed to create a liquid biofuel. Both types of biofuels have been touted as secure and environmentally safe alternatives to fossil fuels, however the research verifying these claims is extensive but often contradicting. In the following paper, the efficiency and quality of the two types of biofuel will be discussed. The effects of variables such as source materials and production techniques on efficiency and quality will be considered. Due to the limited scope of this paper however, only generalized net analyses of ethanol and biodiesel production will be considered. The production of ethanol requires one of two source materials, cellulose or sucrose, both of which are complex sugars. Currently, corn and sugar cane are the primary source materials for ethanol; however it can be produced from any plant cellulose. Ethanol is created using chemical and non chemical processes. These processes include liquefication, saccharification, fermentation, and distillation (Malca and Freire, 2006). Today, the world’s ethanol is primarily produced in Brazil using sugarcane. The second largest producer of ethanol is the United States, where it is created from corn. Ethanol has the largest production mass of all the biofuels (Powlson, Riche, and Shield, 2005). In 2003 Brazil produced 9.9 million tons, as compared to 8.4 million tons produced by the United States, and 1.75 million tons produced in Europe (Malca and Freire, 2006). Biodiesel is produced by subjecting the triglycerides found in vegetables oils and fats to transesterification, which is the exchanging of the alkoxy group of an ester compound by another alcohol. This creates an ox... ... dbio-ethyl tertiary butyl ether (bioETBE): Assessing the implications of allocation. Energy, 31: pp. 3362-3380. McCormick R, Graboski M, Alleman T, and Herring A. (2001). Impact of biodiesel source material and chemical structure on emissions of criteria pollutants from a heavy-duty engine. Environmental Science Technology, 35 (9): pp. 1742-1747. Pimental D and Patzek (2005). Ethanol Production using Corn, Switchgrass and Wood; Biodiesel Production using soybean and Sunflower. Earth and Environmental Sciences, 14 (1). Powlson DS, Riche AB, and Shield, I. (2005). Biofuels and other approaches for decreasing fossil fuel emissions from agriculture. Annals of Applied Biology, 146: pp. 193-201. Van Gerpen JV. (1996). Cetane number testing of biodiesel. National Biodiesel Board Reports Database, Liquid Fuels and Industrial Products from Renewable Sources.

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